FILTRATION  OF  WATER 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE 


HEALTH  AND  PROSPERITY 
OF  A MUNICIPALITY 


BY  F.  8.  LEOFOLB 


A short  discussion  in  connection  with  reprint 
of  a paper  read  at  the  25th  Annual  Convention 
of  the  American  Water  Works  Association  at 
West  Baden,  Indiana,  May,  1905. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress  Dec.,  1905,  by  the  Pittsburgh  Filter 
Manufacturing  Co.,  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
at  Washington,  D.  C. 


C/ 


( 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER. 


In  the  introduction  of  this  subject,  a quotation  from  Ellice 
Hopkins  is  striking  as  being  peculiarly  strong: 

“If  we  desire  a strong,  active,  healthy  body,  free  from  pain 
and  disease;  if  we  wish  an  active,  vigorous  brain  that  shall 
give  us  clean,  wholesome,  energetic  thoughts  to  the  end  of  life ; 
let  us  see  to  it  that  none  but  the  purest  and  most  suitable  solid 
and  liquid  food  is  supplied  to  our  digestive  organs  under 
proper  conditions  to  keep  the  body  and  brain  clean,  strong  and 
enduring.  Pure  water  is  the  only  liquid  agent  in  existence 
that  will  do  this.  It  is  better  to  fence  the  precipice  at  the  top 
' than  to  wait  with  an  ambulance  at  the  bottom.*’ 

The  last  sentence  embraces  the  meat  of  the  whole  proposi- 
tion. Water  is  the  most  necessary  food  in  ^^xistence  for  all 
plant  and  animal  life.  The  human  body  is  about  6o  per  cent., 
- by  weight,  water.  Take  solid  food  from  man  and  allow  him 
water  and  life  can  be  sustained  for  a wonderful  period.  We 
have  had  many  instances  of  fasting  for  a period  of  thirty,  and 
even  sixty  days.  Reverse  the  conditions : give  solid  food  but 
■ eliminate  water  entirely  and  the  best  physicians  state  that  ten 
to  fifteen  days  would  be  the  limit  of  endurance. 

Now,  the  relative  importance  of  water  to  the  human  system 
is  within  knowledge  of  all.  Learned  in  early  school  life,  the 
v knowledge  broadens  as  we  grow  older.  Should  we  not  have 
the  strongest  conviction  on  the  dangers  of  impure  water? 
Purity  in  everything  else  we  use  or  consume  is  the  first  de- 
: mand. 

f"  In  the  manufacture  of  iron,  it  is  put  through  many  operations 
to  free  it  from  impurities.  Only  in  its  nearly  pure  state  does 
it  have  strength  and  stability,  making  it  of  value  for  its 
thousands  of  uses.  In  making  concrete,  only  pure  cement  and 
clean  sand  and  stone  are  used.  If  earth  or  clay  be  mixed  with 
it  the  strength  is  lost  and  the  work  valueless.  It  is  so  in  all 
classes  of  mechanical  construction.  Care  is  exercised  to  se- 
cure the  best  materials,  that  we  may  have  strength,  stability 
and  lasting  qualities. 


We  are  careful  in  the  selection  of  food  and  pass  laws  to 
protect  us  in  this ; practically  all  states  maintain  a corps  of 
inspectors  to  examine  and  test  articles  of  food,  and  we  read  of 
heavy  fines  assessed  against  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  food 
supplies  even  for  the  addition  of  practically  harmless  preserva- 
tives. Yet  water  of  any  character  may  be  furnished  to  the 
people  with  impunity — with  no  safeguards,  no  requirements, 
no  protection  of  any  kind  or  character  from  contamination  or 
impurities.  We  have  seen  water  supplied  to  communities  so 
full  of  decaying  organic  matter  that  it  was  as  yellow  as  tea, 
with  an  overpowering  odor  each  time  a faucet  was  opened. 
We  have  seen  it  pumped  from  a stagnant  creek,  the  surface 
covered  with  a heavy,  green  scum,  alive  with  mosquitoes  in 
various  stages  of  development,  so  vile  that  cows  would  not 
stand  in  it,  or  so  thick  with  mud  that  you  could  not  see  a lead 
pencil  held  in  a glassful  of  it ; the  number  of  bacteria  con- 
tained in  these  waters  in  some  cases  being  more  than  half  a 
million  per  cubic  centimetre.  There  are  few  river  or  surface 
supplies  that  do  no  contain  2,500  or  more  per  cubic  centimetre  ; 
while  all  recognized  authorities  maintain  that  one  or  two  hun- 
dred should  be  the  limit  allowed  in  a water  destined  for  drink- 
ing purposes. 

Now,  with  all  these  conditions  well  known,  and  extraor- 
dinary efforts  put  forth  for  purity  in  materials  entering  into 
mechanical  construction  to  insure  strength  and  stability ; with 
laws  to  preserve  food  from  impurities  and  a widespread 
knowledge  of  the  importance  of  water  and  the  part  it  plays  in 
the  constitution  of  the  human  body  ; with  a standard  of  purity 
which  scientists  have  set  as  the  lowest  that  should  be  permis- 
sible ; consumers  are  furnished  water  such  as  is  described  every 
day  for  years,  with  no  effort  to  improve  or  better  it.  and  the 
people  submit  to  it,  with  a growl  occasionally;  to  which  no 
attention  is  paid  for  the  most  part.  In  fact,  in  many  cases,  the 
people  object  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  improve  conditions.  It 
is  expensive  to  install  and  maintain  a fire  department  to  protect 
property.  It  is  costly  to  equip  and  maintain  a police  depart- 
ment, but  who  would  be  bold  enough  to  say  we  should  dis- 
pense with  them?  Is  life  of  less  worth  than  property,  that  we 
value  it  lightly,  or  rather  that  we  are  skeptical  of  the  dangers 
lurking  in  the  innocent  looking  glass  of  water? 

There  is  no  better  insurance  on  life  than  a reduction  in  the 
number  of  dangers  that  threaten  it,  and  we  should  study  those 


4 


which  come  within  our  vision,  that  we  may  better  understand 
how  to  avoid  them. 

Here,  it  would  seem,  is  presented  a magnificent  opportunity 
for  the  press  of  the  country  to  become  truly  beneficent  to  the 
communities  within  their  sphere  of  influence  by  presenting  to 
their  readers,  weekly  or  daily,  the  results  of  research  by  recog- 
nized authorities,  holding  before  them  constantly  the  incon- 
testible  evidence  of  the  value  of  pure  water  as  demonstrated 
by  statistics  of  the  death  rates  in  those  cities  which  have  es- 
tablished purification  works.  These  absolute,  recorded  results 
always  in  sight  would  make  the  high  typhoid  death  rates  of 
others  be  such  a flaring  danger  signal  that  even  the  most  care- 
less and  indifiPerent  consumer  of  water  must  in  time  awaken 
to  a proper  realization  of  the  vast  importance  of  this  question 
to  him,  and  the  insignificance  of  the  expense  compared  with 
the  benefits  accruing. 

There  are,  according  to  statistics,  500,000  cases  of  typhoid 
fever  in  the  United  States  annually,  with  50,000  deaths.  The 
press  only  record  them  when  an  acute,  local  epidemic  takes 
place.  Authorities  agree  that  three-fourths  of  this  vast  total 
is  due  to  contaminated  water,  and,  therefore,  preventable. 
Gather  one  week’s  roll  into  one  day  and  confine  it  to  one 
locality,  the  news  of  the  holocaust  would  be  spread  to  the  ut- 
termost ends  of  the  world  and  be  held  up  as  a lesson  to  profit  by. 
Unfortunately,  this  has  occurred  with  alarming  frequency  in 
the  last  few  years  and  the  lesson  is  being  slowly  learned.  Let  us 
hope  that  such  frequent  repetitions  will  not  occur  in  the  future. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  prosperity  of  a community  de- 
pends upon  the  ability  of  its  inhabitants  to  produce  that  which 
is  consumed  in  the  process  of  living  and  a surplus  which  may 
be  disposed  of  in  other  marts  for  gain.  This  gain  constitutes 
the  wealth  of  a community. 

It  is  also  an  indisputable  fact  that  in  order  to  be  able  to  pro- 
duce, man  must  be  in  good  physical  condition.  All  must  pro- 
duce in  order  to  be  of  individual  value  in  adding  to  the  wealth 
of  a community.  However,  all  men  are  not  producers,  re- 
gardless of  physical  condition ; that  portion  who  are  not  are 
maintained  by  the  labor  of  others  and  their  maintenance  must 
be  included  in  the  total  of  consumption  of  any  community  be- 
fore there  could  be  a profit.  It  is  also  a fact  that  it  is  the 
active  workers  who  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  typhoid 
germ.  Therefore,  with  the  spread  of  typhoid  in  a community, 


we  see  those  who  are  the  real  producers  of  wealth  prostrated 
so  that  they  are  not  only  unable  to  maintain  themselves,  but 
are  placed  in  the  position  of  requiring  more  than  the  healthy 
drones.  With  any  large  proportion  of  the  active  workers 
stricken,  the  community  would  soon  become  a public  burden. 

hollowing  this  logic,  it  is  evident  that  with  an  epidemic  cov 
ering  a period  of  but  a few  weeks,  and  afflicting  from  ten  to 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  poulation,  as  in  several  instances 
given,  that  community  must  temporarily  be  deprived  of  its 
means  of  creating  wealth.  This  difference  in  conditions  con- 
stitutes loss  in  prosperity,  a loss  that  can  be  figured  with  a 
reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  in  dollars  and  cents. 

The  value  set  upon  a life  by  generally  accepted  precedents 
of  the  court  in  this  country  is  $5,000.00  each ; and  on  this 
basis  a judgment  was  several  years  ago  rendered  in  favor  of 
one  Julia  L.  Green,  a widow  at  Ashland,  Wisconsin,  against 
the  Ashland  Water  Co.,  for  the  loss  of  her  husband,  who  con- 
tracted typhoid  fever  and  died  as  a result  thereof ; the  Court 
finding  the  Water  Company  negligent  in  supplying  a water 
known  to  be  contaminated  to  its  consumers,  of  whom  Green 
was  one.  (Reported  in  J.  W.  Hill’s  “Public  Water  Supplies.”) 

The  typhoid  sufferers  at  other  places  have  proposed  to  enter 
suit  for  damages,  claiming  a liability  in  furnishing  a water 
which  was  responsible  for  the  fever  epidemic.  Such  a suit 
would  be  watched  with  the  utmost  interest  by  companies  and 
municipalities  furnishing  water.  The  result,  if  successfully 
maintained,  would  be  far-reaching,  indeed;  and  while  it  would 
be  a drastic  treatment  of  the  case,  it  would  no  doubt  result  in 
the  fullest  measure  of  protection  to  all  communities  and  render 
remote  the  recurrence  of  such  calamities. 

Mr.  W.  P.  Mason,  in  his  work — Water  Su])])ly — figures  the 
value  of  life  at  $2,000.00  in  estimating  the  cost  of  typhoid  an- 
nually to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  previous  to  the  installation  of  a filtra- 
tion plant,  and  at  this  low  rate  showed  an  annual  tax  of  $200,- 
000.00  on  the  people  at  Albany. 

The  average  value  of  life  lost  is  here  takeii  at  $3,000.00,  and 
this  is  conservative  when  we  consider  that  about  70  per  cent, 
of  typhoid  victims  are  in,  or  just  entering,  the  prime  of  life. 
Taking  the  cost  of  funerals  at  $30.00  each  and  doctor  and 
nursing  at  $35.09  for  each  case ; the  average  duration  of  in- 
capacity, forty  days;  figuring  loss  of  wages  at  $1.00  per  day; 
on  this  basis  is  given  a talilc  of  losses  sustained  by  some  of  the 


r, 


cities  by  reason  of  typhoid  epidemics.  In  the  losses  have  been 
hi^nred  death  losses,  cost  of  funerals,  doctors’  bills  and  loss  of 
wages,  as  about  these  there  can  be  no  controversy.  As  an  in- 
direct loss  there  has  been  taken  the  average  earning  powr  of 
the  deaths  at  $300.00  per  annum  each.  This  would  amount  to 
an  annual  sum  sufficient  to  pay  4 per  cent,  interest  on  a debt 
of  $7,500.00  for  each  worker  lost,  or  an  amount  in  every  case 
several  times  more  than  the  cost  of  a filtration  plant.  If  a 
community  has  a certain  number  of  active  workers  and  five  or 
ten  per  cent,  of  them  are  swept  away,  it  loses  the  earning 
power  of  tliat  percentage  of  the  total  number,  unless  they  can 
be  replaced ; in  consequence  the  quota  is  made  good  by  im- 
porting from  an  outside  community.  In  the  fact  that  the  ranks 
are  filled  with  little  waste  of  time,  the  claim  may  be  made  that 
there  is  only  a temporary  loss.  This  is  weak  logic,  however. 
If  we  draw  from  some  other  community  to  replace  our  loss  we 
simply  rob  it  or  transfer  our  loss  to  the  shoulders  of  others. 

in  addition  to  this,  there  is  great  but  indefinite  loss  due  to 
the  stagnation  and  uncertainty  in  business  during  epidemics  of 
any  kind. 

This  is  treating  the  question  altogether  as  a cold  business 
proposition.  When  we  take  a glimpse  of  the  sentimental  side, 
what  a picture  presents  itself ! Who  will  attempt  to  place  a 
money  value  on  the  anxious  hours  and  weeks  spent  by  a fond 
mother  or  loving  wife  as  she  watches,  patiently,  hopefully,  by 
the  bedside  of  son  or  husband ; wearing  out  her  own  vitality 
in  her  unselfish  devotion?  Can  dollars  assuage  this  grief  or 
measure  the  loss  to  the  fond  parents  whose  only  joy  may  have 
been  removed  ? 

Does  it  not  seem  strange  that  one  such  lesson  as  that  pre- 
sented at  Grand  Forks,  where  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion were  stricken,  should  not  have  sent  forth  such  a volume  of 
lamentation  as  to  be  heard  in  every  corner  of  the  world  and 
rouse  the  most  indifferent  and  mercenary  soul  to  action  ? Must 
it  be  repeated  many  times,  with  the  sacrifice  of  thousands  of 
lives,  before  the  false  financial  theory  at  present  in  municipal 
vogue  is  finally  acknowledged  as  not  only  criminal,  but  ex- 
travagant ? 

There  is,  in  this  connection,  another  phase  of  the  matter. 
During  an  investigation  on  this  subject,  there  were  mailed  some 
thirty  or  forty  letters  to  Water  Companies  and  cities  who  had 
adopted  filter  plants,  requesting  data  as  to  the  increase  in 


revenue  clue  to  the  furnishing-  of  a better  water  to  consumers. 
The  average  increase  of  those  furnishing  the  data  requested, 
for  the  first  three  years,  was  67  per  cent.,  or  22  1-3  per  cent., per 
annum.  Some  of  this,  of  course,  may  be  accounted  as  due  to 
natural  growth,  but  the  plants  selected  had  all  been  operating 
for  some  years  previous  to  filter  installations  and  in  the  re- 
ports the  credit  was  given,  practically  unanimously,  to  the 
filter  plants  and  the  better  water,  by  such  expressions  as 
these:  “We  could  not  do  business  without  it”;  “We  could  only 
put  out  fires  if  we  had  no  filter  plant” ; “A  filter  plant  is 
absolutely  essential,  and  our  experience  has  been  that  it  is  an 
exceptionally  good  investment”  ; “We  would  not  be  without  a 
filter  under  any  circumstances”  ; and  many  others  of  similar 
nature. 

Another  peculiar  feature  is  the  fact  that  the  ownership  of 
filtration  plants,  as  shown  by  the  Mw/nVf/^a/ I'Tar  of  1902 

(page  13),  published  by  the  Engineering  Nezvs,  is  100  by  pri- 
vate, to  40  by  public,  owners — a very  good  indication  of  the 
commercial  value  as  an  investment.  And  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a very  large  proportion,  especially  of  the  smaller 
plants,  were  installed  for  clarification  purposes  before  the  bac- 
terial theory  was  generally  understood  or  demonstrated  as  an 
absolute,  known  element  in  the  spread  of  disease. 

\W  neglect  and  refusal  to  purify  our  water  supplies,  are  we 
not  losing  sight,  not  only  of  all  feeling  or  sentiment,  of  care  for 
the  health  and  lives  of  our  fellow  beings,  but  also  allowing  to 
pass  unheeded  splendid  commercial  opportunities? 

While  it  would  seem  that  the  art  of  water  filtration  as  dem- 
onstrated by  results  is  so  near  the  state  of  perfection  as  to 
leave  no  argument  open  to  skeptics,  investigations  now  being 
conducted  on  a very  careful  and  elaborate  scale  seem  to  give 
promise  of  even  more  jjhenomenal  results  that  may  be  accom- 
plished in  mechanical  hit  ration  plants. 

The  writer  was  fortunate  in  being  rather  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  first  practical  investigation  in  these  new  lines 
and  quotes  briefly,  from  the  report  contained  in  LUilletin  No. 
76,  page  44,  issued  April  3rd  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  these  experiments,  con- 
ducted by  Karl  F.  Kellerman  and  C.  Arthur  Brown  at  Ander- 
son, Ind. : 

“The  water  supply  at  Anderson,  Indiana,  offered  exceptional 
u)pportunities  for  demonstrating  the  efficiency  of  copper  in  re- 


8 


movino'  intestinal  bacteria.  The  water  is  drawn  from  Wdiite 
River,  into  which  the  City  of  Mnncie  empties  its  entire  sew- 
age, and  durin^e;'  the  entire  four  weeks  of  the  test  conducted  on 
the  use  of  copper  in  connection  with  filtration,  the  river  was 
ice-bound,  making  a closed  conduit  for  the  diluted  sewage 
from  Muncie  and  smaller  towns  further  up  the  river.  The 
water  was  very  high  in  albuminoid  and  free  ammonia  and  ex- 
ceptionally high  in  chloride,  due  to  salt  water  from  the  gas 
wells  above  Muncie.  The  turbidity  was  low  and  the  color 
slight.  Fortunately  for  the  thorough  testing  of  the  value  of 
copper,  the  filter,  owing  to  some  structural  defects,  was  unable 
to  effect  a high  percentage  of  reduction  of  bacteria  at  this  time. 
The  number  of  bacteria  in  the  river  ranged  from  13,000  to 
155,000  per  cubic  centimetre  at  irregular  intervals  during  the 
test,  usually  remaining  above  50,000.  The  number  of  bacteria 
in  the  filtered  water  varied  between  15,000  and  400  per  cubic 
centimetre,  usually  remaining  above  3,000. 

“For  ten  days,  February  2-1 1,  1905,  alum  was  used  as  a 
coagulant.  Bacillus  coli  was  always  present  in  the  river  and 
usually  in  the  filtered  water.  On  February  nth,  iron  sulphate 
containing  i per  cent,  copper  sulphate  was  introduced  in  quan- 
tities of  1^2  grains  to  the  gallon  of  water  (approximately 
I part  copper  to  4,000,000  parts  water).  Lime  was  added,  2 
grains  per  gallon,  the  treatment  continued  four  days,  during 
this  time  only  once  was  there  any  indication  of  the  presence  of 
Bacillus  coli,  and  this  cccurred  immediately  after  a leak  devel  - 
oped in  the  air  pipe  of  the  wash  system,  allowing  unfiltered 
water  to  pass  into  pipes.  The  following  five  days  Bacillus  coli 
developed  but  once  and  this  was  immediately  following  a re- 
appearance of  the  leak  in  the  air  pipe. 

“Iron  sulphate  containing  one-half  per  cent,  copper  sulphate 
was  now  applied  at  the  rate  of  1.5  grains  per  gallon  (approxi-- 
mately  one  part  copper  sulphate  to  8,000,000  parts  water). 
Bacillus  coli  was  eliminated  during  the  two  days  that  this  mix- 
ture was  used,  iron  sulphate  containing  only  one-fourth  per 
cent,  copper  sulphate  (one  part  to  15,000,000  parts  water)  was 
substituted  one  day.  This  amount  was  insufficient  to  eradicate 
completely  the  Bacillus  coli  and  two  of  the  filter  samples  con- 
tained this  organism. 

“Pure  iron  sulphate  was  then  used  at  the  rate  of  3 grains 
per  gallon  and  Bacillus  coli  developed  from  samples  of  each 
filter.  From  the  preceding  experiments  there  seems  to  be  no 


9 


doubt  that  the  filtering  of  polluted  water  of  this  character 
through  the  layer  of  coagulum  of  iron  and  copper  which  forms 
on  the  filter  bed  brings  the  bacteria  borne  into  the  water  into 
contact  with  the  precipitatel  copper  for  a sufficient  length  of 
time  to  destroy  Bacillus  coli  and  as  Bacillus  typhi  is  still  more 
sensitive  to  the  action  of  copper  it  must  necessarily  be  removed 
from  the  filtered  water.” 

A further  investigation  covering  a period  of  several  months 
and  carried  on  with  the  most  minute  care  and  a thorough  con- 
sideration of  every  point  involved  has  since  been  concluded 
and  a report  will  probably  shortly  be  issued  giving  the  results 
obtained  at  another  point. 


lO 


Report  from  Proceedings  American  IV  aienvorks  Association , 1905. 


FILTRATION  OF  WATER  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE 
HEALTH  AND  PROSPERITY  OE  A MUNICI- 
PALITY. 

F.  B.  Leopold. 

'The  first  notable  epidemic  of  which  T liave  a record  in  this 
country  was  at  Plymoiiin,  Fa.,  in  1885  ; a village  of  8,000  in- 
habitants, 1,100  of  whom  were  stricken  with  typhoid,  resulting 
in  I [4  deaths.  In  1895  Gi*and  Forks,  N.  D.,  a village  of  about 
6,000  population,  had  1,500  to  2,000  cases  (25  per  cent,  of  her 
population)  and  about  200  deaths.  I quote  the  following  from 
a letter  recently  received  from  Dr.  H.  H.  Healy,  Secretary  of 
the  State  Board  of  Flealth  of  North  li)akota ; 

‘‘Previous  to  the  epidemic  the  city  water  supply  was  taken 
from  the  Red  l.ake  river,  which  is  a small,  unnavigable  stream. 
Twenty-four  miles  above  Grand  Forks,  by  car  line,  Crookston 
was  situated,  with  a population  at  that  time  of  about  three 
thousand.  During  the  summer  of  94  they  had  a good  many 
cases  of  typhoid  fever  at  Crookston.  Their  main  sewer  passed 
under  one  of  the  railroad  embankments  just  before  emptying 
into  the  Red  Lake  river.  Some  time  during  the  summer  the 
embankment  crushed  in  the  sewer,  shutting  it  off.  The  sewage 
then  came  to  the  surface,  and  formed  a small  stagnant  pond 
held  back  by  the  embankment.  This  remained,  I think,  for 
about  two  months,  continually  increasing  in  amount.  Just 
about  the  time  that  ice  formed  on  the  Red  Lake  river  this 
sewer  under  the  track  was  opened  up  and  the  dammed  back 
pond  of  sewage  was  allowed  to  flow  out  rapidly  underneath  the 
ice.  This  was,  of  course,  the  time  of  year  when  the  water  in 
the  river  would  be  quite  low,  so  that  there  was  little  chance 
for  proper  dilution  and  aeration.  As  a result,  some  two  or 
three  weeks  after  this  sewage  was  opened,  the  young  people  of 
Grand  Forks  took  sick  by  the  dozens,  then  by  the  hundreds. 
The  degree  of  virulency  seemed  to  be  unusually  severe.  I 
am  unable  to  state  the  total  number  of  cases,  but  there  must 
have  been  between  fifteen  hundred  and  two  thousand  cases 
during  the  next  three  months.  The  total  population  at  that 
time  was  about  six  thousand.  There  were  probably  about  two 
hundred  deaths.  The  above  statements  are  not  accurate,  but 


will  give  you  an  idea  as  nearly  as  I can  of  the  epidemic.  I 
may  state  that  the  following  year  Grand  Forks  established  a 
filtration  system  after  plan  of  the  Lawrence  filter  in  Massa- 
chusetts, which  has  given  splendid  satisfaction.  Typhoid  fever, 
originating  in  town,  is  almost  nnknoiviiT 

In  1903  the  whole  country  was  shocked  by  the  records  of 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  Butler,  Pa.,  which  have  made  the  names  of 
these  two  obscure  towns  familiar  throughout  the  world.  Ith- 
aca, N.  Y.,  with  a population  of  13,000,  had  1,350  cases  of 
fever  and  78  deaths ; resulting  in  Cornell  University  being  de- 
serted for  a time,  the  importation  of  doctors  and  nurses  to  take 
care  of  the  sick  and  dying,  a pall  of  uncertainty  and  stagnation 
covering  the  whole  city  for  months,  and  a cost  in  money  incal- 
culable. The  epidemic  was  caused,  as  the  investigation  demon- 
strated, by  a contaminated  water  suppl3%  through  drainage 
which  was  washed  into  the  stream  supplying  water  to  the  city. 
The  Ithaca  epidemic  covered  the  period  between  January  nth 
and  April  15th,  1903,  and  was  distributed  pretty  well  over  the 
whole  city.  Mr.  Geo.  A.  Soper,  C.  E.,  made  a thorough  in- 
vestigation of  every  i)hase  of  the  situation,  for  the  New  York 
State  Department  of  Health,  covering  the  water  supply  for 
the  city  and  Cornell  University  While  no  cases  were  traced 
directly  to  the  latter  supply,  it  was  shown  to  be  in  constant 
danger  of  contamination  from  vaults.  The  supply  furnished 
the  city,  however,  is  taken  from  vSix  Mile  creek,  and  on  this 
creek,  but  a short  distance  from  the  intake,  within  the  city 
limits,  were  found  17  vaults  overhanging  or  close  to  and 
draining  directly  into  it..  Several  cases  of  typhoid  occurring 
in  the  few  months  previous  to  the  epidemic  were  also  located 
within  the  drainage  area  of  this  stream,  and  the  heavy  rains 
occurring  a couple  of  weeks  before  and  washing  all  the  accu- 
mulated filth  into  the  creek  were  undoubtedlv  responsible  for 
the  havoc  of  the  next  three  months.  In  this  connection  attention 
is  called  to  one  incident  of  this  epidemic.  In  the  course  of  the 
investigation  a number  of  wells  were  examined  and  many  con- 
demned. At  one  point  a local  outbreak  of  some  70  cases  oc- 
curred, with  four  or  five  deaths.  This  was  traced  directly  to 
the  use  of  water  from  one  of  the  wells  not  examined.  An  in- 
vestigation showed  that  the  sewer  drain  from  a house  con- 
taining a typhoid  patient  passed  near  this  well,  discharging 
partly  into  the  ground  through  a defective  joint  and  cou- 


12 


laminating'  the  well ; thus  illustrating  the  danger  of  wells  in  a 
populous  district. 

Both  the  Water  Co.  of  Ithaca  and  the  University  began  the 
construction  of  filtration  works  immediately,  and  completed 
them  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  the  damage  had  already  been 
done  and  the  city  was  waiting  to  count  the  cost.  We  will  see 
later  what  this  amounts  to. 

The  next  notable  epidemic  was  that  occurring  at  Butler,  Pa., 
a city  of  18,000  population,  in  which  1,348  persons  were 
stricken  within  the  short  period  of  ninety  days  and  t t t deaths 
occurred,  as  given  in  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
The  conditions  here  were  somewhat  different  from  those  at 
Ithaca,  inasmuch  as  precautions  were  already  being  taken  to 
secure  the  fullest  protection  to  the  water  supply,  and  the  town 
was  caught  practically  in  the  situation  of  a man  putting  a new 
roof  on  his  domicile  Avhen  an  unexpected  rainstorm  comes. 
Butler  had  a splendid  waterworks  near  completion.  One  of 
the  storage  dams  had  been  washed  away  and  a new  one  was 
being  built.  It  had  completed  a filter  plant  and  was  putting  in 
new  pumping  machinery.  The  destruction  of  the  dam  necessi- 
tated the  use  ot  a water  known  to  be  more  or  less  polluted. 
Nevertheless,  as  long  as  the  filter  ])lant  was  operating  there  was 
no  sign  of  danger.  During  October,  however,  on  account  of 
the  changes  in  the  pumping  static  n,  the  filter  was  shut  off  at 
intervals  to  allow  work  to  proceed  on  these  changes ; and  im- 
mediately there  appeared  the  epidemic. 

Within  ten  days  after  the  polluted  water  began  to  be  pumped 
direct  the  physicians  were  overwhelmed  with  calls.  By  No- 
vember 29th  the  disease  was  so  widespread  and  serious  that  a 
public  mass  meeting  was  called  and  a relief  committee  organ- 
ized. In  order  to  meet  the  expense  of  the  committee  $25,000 
was  voluntarily  subscribed  and  it  was  estimated  that  $75,000 
would  be  needed.  Nurses  and  physicians  were  procured  from 
Pittsburg,  Philadelphia  and  other  places.  The  work  at  the 
station  was  rushed  to  completion  at  the  earliest  possible  mo- 
ment, but  to  December  17,  1903,  there  was  a total  of  1,270 
cases  reported,  with  56  deaths. 

In  this  case  the  infection  was  traced  to  the  drainage  from  a 
miner’s  cabin  in  which  there  was  typhoid  fever.  The  drainage 
from  this  cabin  was  directly  into  a small  branch,  the  flow  from 
which  entered  into  the  stream  from  which  the  supply  was 
taken,  and  at  a ])oint  a few  yards  above  the  intake  to  station. 


13 


The  value  of  the  filter  plant  is  so  strongly  emphasized  her^- 
that  I quote  the  conclusions  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
(pages  47  and  48  of  report  issued  by  them  on  the  ‘‘Butler  Epi- 
demic”) : 

“The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  a review  of  the  facts  as 
they  have  been  found  to  exist  are  that,  following  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roydstown  dam  on  August  28,  water  for  distribu- 
tion to  the  people  of  Butler  was  taken  from  the  Connoquenes- 
sing  creek  through  an  emergency  intake  at  the  pumping  sta- 
tion ; an  examination  of  the  waters  of  this  creek  showed  that  it 
maintains  a fairly  constant  evidence  of  pollution,  and  that  at 
various  periods  the  operation  of  the  filter  plant  designed  to 
remove  such  pollution  was  partially  or  entirely  suspended,  and 
that  as  a result  of  this  polluted  water  being  used  for  domestic 
purposes,  1,348  persons  who  so  used  it  were  stricken  with 
typhoid  fever  between  October  i,  1903,  and  January  29,  1904, 
with  III  fatalities. 

“In  comparison  with  other  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  which 
have  occurred  at  different  periods,  Butler  presents  in  point  of 
numbers  one  of  the  greatest  epidemics  in  proportion  to  the 
population  in  the  history  of  the  world ; the  records  in  com- 
parison with  certain  other  epidemics  being  as  follows : 


Location. 

Date. 

Population. 

Cases. 

Deaths 

Lausen,  Switzerland  . . . 

. . . . 1872 

780 

144 

Caterham,  England  . . . , 

1879 

5,800 

352 

21 

Plymouth,  Pa 

i88s 

8,000 

1,104 

114 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

^903 

13,000 

1,300 

78 

Butler,  Pa 1903 

and  1904 

18,000 

1,348 

III 

“It  will  be  noticed  from  these  statistics  that  Pennsylvania, 
within  the  last  score  of  years,  has  contributed  two  of  the  most 
serious  epidemics  of  a preventable  disease  which  have  occurred 
in  recent  years. 

“This  epidemic  illustrates  the  serious  burden  of  responsi- 
bility which  rests  upon  both  municipal  and  private  corporations 
engaged  in  suptilying  water  for  domestic  uses,  and  at  the  same 
time  demonstrates  that  the  streams  of  our  State  even  in  com- 
paratively remote  sections  are  cajiable  of  receiving  such  serious 
contamination  that  they  should  become  the  objects  of  the  most 
careful  supervision  on  the  part  of  local  and  State  authorities. 

“That  such  a distressing  calamity  could  occur  in  a commu- 
nity which  prided  itself  on  the  safeguards  of  storage  and  filtra- 
tion which  they  had  provided,  naturally  excites  the  greatest 


anxiety  concerning^  those  very  numerous  communities  which 
have  no  such  protection. 

‘‘The  efforts  which  have  been  made  to  secure  a pure  water 
supply  for  Butler  have  been  of  a far  more  energetic  character 
than  the  very  great  majority  of  our  municipalities  have  made. 

“While  ample  storage  has  been  provided  for  raw  water  and 
competent  filters  have  been  installed,  the  Butler  system  yet 
lacks  the  storage  facilities  for  filtered  water  which  would  safe- 
guard the  town  in  event  of  enforced  suspension  of  filtration 
for  a period  greater  than  twenty-four  hours. 

“The  cificiency  of  filtratioji  as  a means  of  purifying  water 
has  been  well  illustrated  in  this  instance,  for  although  the  pol- 
luted water  of  the  Connoquenessing  creek  was  used  from 
August  28  to  November  15,  typhoid  fever  did  not  occur  until 
the  operation  of  the  filter  plant  was  interrupted  in  October. 
No  object  lesson  to  be  learned  from  the  epidemic  can  be  com- 
pared, however,  with  the  necessity  which  has  been  shown  to 
exist  for  the  compulsory  registration  by  physicians  of  contag- 
ious and  infectious  diseases  occurring  in  rural  districts.” 

While  it  is  notable  that  the  years  1903  and  1904  have  been 
unusually  prolific  in  the  production  of  typhoid  fever,  it  is  also 
notable  that  the  sources  of  the  origin  of  local  epidemics  have 
been  more  carefully  traced  and  definitely  located  in  the  con- 
tamination of  the  water  supplies. 

Columbus,  the  capital  city  of  Ohio,  during  the  first  four 
months  of  1904  suffered  very  severely.  During  January,  Feb- 
ruary, March  and  April  there  were  reported,  according  to  Mr. 
of  typhoid,  with  166  deaths.  A very  full  report  was  made  by 
E.  A.  Moriarty,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Health,  1,640  cases 
Prof.  Eno,  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  in  the  “Engineering 
News”  of  February  ii,  1904,  from  which  extracts  are  taken: 

“Columbus  secures  water  from  Scioto  river  and  partially 
from  wells.  From  the  river  the  water  is  supposed  to  be  drawn 
from  a system  of  galleries  located  in  the  river  and  consisting  of 
about  12,850  feet  or  over  two  miles  of  42-inch  C.  I.  and  brick 
conduit.  The  wells  consist  of  32  driven  and  one  large  open 
well  25  feet  in  diameter.  The  efforts  in  this  direction,  how- 
ever, have  proven  the  absolute  inadequacy  of  such  supply — the 
necessity  of  using  the  wajer  direct  from  the  river  remaining 
as  strong  as  ever. 

“The  reports  and  examinations  of  this  water  for  the  last  five 
years  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  have  shown  a badly  pol- 


15 


luted  water.  The  examination  of  515  samples,  ’89  to  ’03, 
shows  an  average  number  of  bacteria  of  2,228  and  a range  of 
from  160  to  20,000  per  C.  C.  Only  7 per  cent,  of  these  samples 
fall  below  300  per  C.  C.  and,  as  Mr.  Horton  says,  indicate  “how 
undesirable  and  unsafe’  the  supply  is. 

“The  average  number  of  typhoid  cases  for  the  last  five  years 
has  been  about  480  per  annum,  with  about  10  per  cent,  fatali- 
ties. With  these  constant  warnings  and  continuous,  unneces- 
sary loss  of  life,  it  required  the  sweeping  epidemic  of  January 
and  February  of  this  year  to  awaken  Columbus  to  a realization 
of  its  responsibilities.  During  January  there  were  reported  724 
cases,  and  to  February  7th,  319  cases  of  fever;  a total  of  1,083 
cases,  with  a total,  to  that  date,  of  57  deaths.” 

As  soon  as  the  rapid  increase  in  cases  indicated  unusual  pol- 
lution of  the  water  supply,  a systematic  search  was  made  for 
the  trouble.  Samples  were  taken  at  various  points  along  the 
river  and  on  January  14th  sewage  was  discovered  emptying 
into  “Dry  Run,”  which  flows  into  the  Scioto  river,  discharging 
from  a 20-inch  sewer  connected  to  the  State  Hospital  for  In- 
sane. Samples  were  taken  from  this  run  and  from  the  river 
above  and  below  the  mouth  of  it.  That  from  above  showed 
considerable  pollution.  The  Dry  Run  sample  was  nearly  as  bad 
as  the  average  Columbus  sewage.  The  sample  taken  below, 
while  it  did  not  show  as  much  pollution  as  it  should,  consider- 
ing the  discharge  of  Dry  Run,  Mr.  E.  V.  Horton,  State  Bacteri- 
ologist, states  this  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
place  from  which  it  was  taken  was  partially  shielded  from  this 
discharge ; and  while  he  does  not  in  his  report  lay  all  the  blame 
on  the  sewage  of  the  hospital  for  the  pollution  found  in  the 
river,  he  states  that  now  that  further  discharges  from  that  in- 
stitution are  stopped,  he  hopes  to  see  a notable  decrease  in  the 
pidemic  after  the  period  of  incubation  of  the  disease  effected 
by  pollution  has  passed.  In  this  expressed  prediction  he  was 
])roven  correct  by  after  results. 

In  the  “Engineering  News”  of  February  25th,  1904,  is  a 
communication  from  Mr.  Allen  Hazen  stating  that  the  condi- 
tions found  on  this  investigation  are  identical  with  those  found 
by  him  and  reported  in  March,  1895,  in  which  report  atten- 
tion was  called  to  hospital  sewer  and  to  the  fact  that  the  Scioto 
river  was  unfit  for  use  as  a public  supply  without  purification. 
Still,  with  this  warning  ten  years  ago,  it  required  the  actual 
fulfillment  of  it  in  a serious  epidemic  before  the  i)eople  were 


16 


aroused  to  the  point  of  action.  Colnnibns  will  install  a filtra- 
tion plant  within  the  next  fevv^  months. 

prevailing  the  same  conditions.  The  authorities  conducted  an 
investigation  under  the  auspices  of  one  of  the  recognized  water 

I now  have  in  mind  another  municipality  in  which  there  are 
supply  experts  some  thirteen  years  ago.  The  findings  of  this 
report  were  that  the  supply  was  unfit  for  use  without  purifica- 
tion. How  much  greater  the  necessity  then  after  thirteen 
years,  with  the  increased  population  and  greater  number  of 
sources  of  pollution  ! The  doctors  of  this  community  are  a 
unit  in  voicing  the  need  for  better  water.  Still,  when  the  mat- 
ter was  taken  up  by  the  authorities  a year  ago  the  press  and  the 
people  made  such  an  outcry  over  the  proposed  expense  that  it 
was  dropped,  and  probably  will  be  until  the  community  is  visited 
by  some  such  scourge  as  Columbus  experienced ; the  cost  of 
which  will  several  times  exceed  the  cost  of  a filtration  plant, 
and  leave  a heritage  of  grief  and  death  that  will  not  be  effaced 
for  generations. 

Among  the  lesser  outbreaks  of  typhoid  which  occurred  dur- 
ing 1903  and  1904,  in  an  epidemic  form,  though  not  of  such 
severity  as  those  before  mentioned,  may  be  given  Leadville, 
Colo.,  with  a population  of  15,000,  where  in  about  thirty  days 
there  were  reported  500  cases  and  23  deaths  (Report  of  C.  E. 
Cooper,  M.  D.,  Secretary  Colorado  State  Board  of  Health). 

Watertown,  N.  Y.,  with  a population  of  25,000,  during  Janu- 
ary and  February  of  1904  had  582  cases  of  fever  and  49  deaths 
(Report  of  City  Clerk,  Dec.  24,  1904). 

An  investigation  and  report  made  by  Prof.  O.  H.  Landreth 
developed  the  usual  findings — contaminated  supply.  A filtra- 
tion plant  has  since  been  installed. 

Ht.  Savage,  \drginia,  a small  mountain  village  of  about 
2,000  inhabitants,  according  to  press  reports,  had  125  cases  of 
fever  in  a period  of  about  thirty  days,  with  several  deaths.  An 
investigation  of  the  water  supply,  which  was  obtained  from 
mountain  springs,  supposedly  pure,  developed  the  fact  that 
there  was  pollution  due  to  sewage  drainage  from  a house  in  the 
vicinity. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota  (“Eng.  News,”  Mar-ch  3,  1904,  F.  H 
Bass,  C.  E.)  : “In  this  city  the  normal  typhoid  rate  had  been 
for  some  time  from  25  to  30  cases  reported  monthly,  but  in 
January,  1904,  it  suddenly  jumped  to  192  cases  reported.  An 
investigation  demonstrated  that  the  district  mostly  affected 


ir- 


was  supplied  from  station  No.  2,  and,  further,  that  while  the 
total  number  of  bacteria  in  the  water  at  the  time  of  the  exam- 
ination was  not  high,  85  per  cent,  of  them  were  Coli  communis.” 

Minneapolis  draws  its  supply  from  three  stations;  Nos.  i 
and  2 being  in  the  heart  of  the  city  and  No.  3 about  three  miles 
above. 

(Engineering  News,  Feb.  11,  1904,  Kept.  Mr.  (ico.  Howers,  C.  E.) 

Lowell,  Mass.,  secures  its  water  supply  from  wells ; the  mains 
are  connected  to  the  private  supply  of  the  Merrimac  Cotton 
Mills,  pumping  river  water  and  controlled  by  check  valves.  July 
1 8,  1903,  a large  fire  in  the  mills  caused  flow  of  city  water  to 
their  system.  After  the  fire  one  of  the  valves  did  not  work  prop- 
erly, allowing  mill  river  water  to  enter  city  supply.  In  a few  days 
cholera  morbus  appeared  in  epidemic  form,  followed  later  by  ty- 
phoid fever.  The  trouble  with  the  valve  was  soon  located,  how- 
ever, and  all  connections  cut  off ; but  during  the  next  sixty  days 
there  occurred  i68  cases  of  typhoid  fever  and  9 deaths.  During 
the  same  period  in  1902  there  were  15  cases  with  6 fatalities; 
1901,  13  cases,  with  one  death.;  thus  illustrating  what  great 
harm  can  be  done  by  a very  small  amount  of  contamination. 

(Engineering  News,  Feb.  11,  1904,  Ke])t.  Mr.  F.  E.  Field.) 

Kittanning,  Pa.,  number  of  cases  from  1898  to  1903:  1898, 
45;  1899,  20;  1900,  76;  1901,  47;  1902,  52;  1903,  131.  In 
December,  1903,  73  cases  ; January,  1904,  19.  "Population  about 
5,000.  At  present  the  water  supply  is  from  Allegheny  river. 
During  the  investigation  both  the  State  Board  of  Health  and 
the  City  collected  samples,  in  all  cases  indicating  contamination  ; 
all  but  two  samples  positive  in  colon  bacillus. 

Wicksboro  (a  village  with  population  of  less  than  1,000), 
Pa.,  located  on  the  same  river  and  deriving  its  supply  from  it. 
During  the  two  months  of  December,  1903,  and  January,  1904, 
it  had  28  cases  of  fever  and  two  deaths. 

hMrd  City,  Pa.  Population,  3,000.  On  same  river,  four  miles 
below  Kittanning.  Plad  17  cases  of  fever  during  the  same  two 
months. 

During  the  same  period  that  section  of  Pittsburg  supplied 
with  water  from  the  Allegheny  river  reported  a total  of  866 
cases.  Here  we  can  follow  the  river  of  death  from  point  to 
point  and  calmly  view  the  work  of  destruction  as  it  ])rocceds : 

(Engineering  News,  March  24,  1904,  Kept.  Mr.  C.  A.  Frown.) 

Lorain,  Ohio.  At  this  point  we  have  a lesson  somewhat  an- 


i8 


alog'ous  to  rUitler — in  a milder  form,  however.  In  1892  Lorain, 
a village  of  about  3,000,  first  established  sewerage ; and  about 
the  same  time  typhoid  made  its  serious  appearance.  The  death 
rate  jumped  from  43.5  per  100,000  (the  average  of  the  four 
previous  years)  to  183.3  1893,  48.8  in  1894,  131.6  in  1895, 

83.3  in  1896.  In  1897  ^ filter  plant  was  established,  and  the 
average  for  the  next  six  years  was  reduced  to  18.8 ; in  1901  as 
low  as  5.5.  For  the  first  seven  months  of  1903  it  was  o.  In 
July,  1903,  however,  the  filtration  plant  was  found  to  be  in 
serious  need  of  repairs  that  necessitated  a stoppage  of  the  plant. 
It  was,  therefore,  shut  down  July  i6th,  and  remained  so  until 
September  nth;  and  from  that  date  to  November  ist  was  in- 
termittently out  of  use.  The  public  was  warned  to  boil  drink- 
ing water  in  the  meantime ; but,  in  spite  of  this,  typhoid  ap- 
peared within  three  weeks,  and  the  death  rate  rose  from  nothing 


LORAIN,  OHIO  » » ESTABLISHED  FEB.  1897 

YOUNGSTOWN , O.  ••  NOW  BEING  CONSTRUCTED 

— LAWRENCE:.  MASS.  -•  " ESTABLISHED  SEPT.  1893 

ALBANY,  NY.  " '•  " AUG.  1699 


to  i8o  per  100,000,  where  it  remained  for  the  next  four  months, 
or  until  December  ist,  by  which  time  pure  water  was  again 
supplied,  and  December  showed  a reduction  to  60.  The  actual 
number  of  cases  for  each  month  of  1903  was  as  follows: 
January,  3 ; February,  4 ; March,  i : April,  o ; May,  o ; June,  2 : 
July,  3;  August,  30;  September,  67;  October,  49;  November, 
5 ; and  December,  2 ; August,  September  and  October  showing 
the  effect  of  putting  filters  out  of  service.  January  and  Febru- 
ary of  1904  went  back  to  zero.  In  this  connection  is  given  a 
chart,  prepared  by  Mr.  Brown,  showing  the  relative  typhoid 


19 


rates  in  five  cities,  three  supplied  with  filter  plants  and  two 
without.  Note  the  steady  increase  in  typhoid  with  city’s 
growth  in  those  cities  without  plants  and  the  uniform  decrease 
of  rates  of  those  supplied  with  filters.  Lawrence  and  Albany 
have  the  slow  sand  and  Lorain  the  mechanical  system.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  other  two  cities  are  now  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction of  plants. 

As  a further  demonstration  of  the  efifect  of  water  on  the 
health  of  a community,  the  following  from  the  report  of  Dr. 
A.  R.- Reynolds,  Commissioner  of  Health  of  Chicago,  showing 
the  deaths  and  death  rates  for  the  four  years  before  and  four 
years  after  the  opening  of  the  drainage  canal,  is  interesting: 


4 Years 

4 Years 

Deaths  from 

1896  to  1899 

1900  to  1903 

Acute  Intestinal  Diseases 

. . . 8,1 19 

8,878  ■ 

Rate  per  1,000  population.  . . . 

16.41 

12.44 

Tvphoid  fever 

2,266 

2,235 

Rate  per  1,000  population.  . . 

. . . 3.68 

3.10 

If  the  rate  of  the  years  1896-1899,  before  the  opening  of  tne 

canal,  had  obtained  during  the 

last  four  years. 

there  would 

have  been  11,724  deaths  from  acute  intestinal  diseases  and  2,629 
from  typhoid,  or  a total  of  3,220  more  than  actually  did  occur. 
The  money  value  of  these  lives,  $16,100,000,  is  only  one  item  to 
be  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  drainage  canal.  From  the  stand- 
point of  public  health  the  drainage  canal  is  the  best  investment 
Chicago  ever  made.”  Yet  this  canal  cost  over  $30,000,000. 

Also  the  following  from  the  report  of  Dr.  A.  C.  Abbott  in 
Engineering  News,  February  nth,  1904,  relative  to  the  prev- 
alence of  typhoid  fever  in  districts  of  Philadelphia  supplied 
with  filtered  water  and  unfiltered  water  Taking  Roxborough 
district  as  one.  Queen  Lane  district  is  1.70  or,  in  other  words, 
has  70  per  cent,  more  typhoid;  Belmont  district  is  2.15,  or  115 
per  cent.  more.  The  relative  difference  is  striking  in  view  of 
the  short  time  during  which  Roxborough  has  been  supplied 
zvith  filtered  zvater.  Philadelphia  is  spending  $17,000,000  on 
the  construction  of  filtration  works,  and  this  vast  amount  has 
been  practically  lost  in  the  last  two  years  by  reason  of  the  lack 
of  them.  In  the  face  of  this  showing  who  can  say  it  is  not  a 
profitable  investment? 

Typhoid  has  also  been  unusually  severe  in  Indianapolis, 
Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  ; although  Pitts- 
burgh has  been  rather  notorious  for  years  as  a hotbed  for 


20 


typhoid  infection.  In  fact,  the  death  rate  in  the  latter  city  is 
something  appalling.  The  Engineering  News  of  February 
25,  1904,  in  commenting  on  the  Pittsburgh  situation,  says : “A 
stronger  indictment  for  neglect  of  the  health  and  very  life  of 
its  citizens  could  not  be  framed  against  any  city  than  that  fur- 
nished by  the  records  of  typhoid  fever  at  Pittsburgh  and  Alle- 
gheny, Pennsylvania.  * * It  is  time  for  the  press  of  the 

whole  country  to  unite  in  a protest  against  the  typhoid  situa- 
tion in  these  two  cities.  Self-destruction,  bad  as  it  is,  might  be 
overlooked,  but  wholesale  murder  must  be  put  down.  * * * 

For  the  last  fourteen  years  there  have  been  some  30,000  cases 
of  fever  reported  and  over  4,200  deaths.”  The  average  death 
rate  (as  given  in  report  published  in  the  Engineering  News) 
for  five  years,  from  1893  to  1898,  was  66.2  per  100,000;  from 
1898  to  1903  it  was  128.6  per  100,000,  a rate  nearly  double. 

It  is  not  the  writer’s  intention  to  attempt  to  do  more  than 
call  attention  to  some  of  the  more  prominent  instances  of  the 
effect  of  contaminated  water  supply  on  typhoid  rates.  In  the 
foregoing  were  also  given  several  very  striking  instances  of 
the  value  of  filtration  works.  I now  give  a summary  of  the 
degree  of  purification  accomplished  in  a number  of  filtration 
plants  established  in  other  municipalities,  which  is  worthy  of 
the  most  careful  study.  (Nrr  /’ugc  22.) 

For  comparative  study  I give  here  a copy  of  the  degree  of 
purification  demanded  by  Mr.  D.  W.  Mead  in  his  specifications, 
which  is  practically  identical  with  that  demanded  by  all  sanitary 
engineers. 

“The  purification  obtained  shall  be  such  that  in  no  case  shall 
the  average  number  of  bacteria  in  the  filtrate  exceed  one  hun- 
dred per  cubic  centimeter,  except  where  the  number  of  bac- 
teria in  the  applied  water  shall  exceed  3,300  per  cubic  centi- 
meter, in  which  event  the  average  reduction  of  bacteria  in  the 
filtrate  shall  be  at  least  ninety-seven  per  cent*. 

“N^ot  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  the  individual  samples  of 
the  filtrate  shall  show  more  than  1 50  bacteria  per  c.  c. ; not  more 
than  five  per  cent,  of  the  sample  of  the  filtrate  shall  show  an 
efficiency  as  low  as  90  per  cent.  No  trace  of  undecomposed 
coagulant  shall  be  left  in  the  filtrate,  nor  shall  the  filtrate  show 
any  increase  in  iron  or  alumina,  or  an  alkalinity  greater  than 
in  the  unfiltered  water.  The  filtrate  shall  show  no  acid  reaction. 
The  filtered  water  shall  be  clear,  bright  and  practically  free 
from  color,  turbidity  or  matter  in  suspension.” 


21 


Raw 

Filtered 

Water 

Water 

Average 

Average 

No. 

No. 

Per 

Bacteria 

Bacteria 

cent. 

Per  Cu. 

Per  Cu. 

Re- 

Observer. 

Month. 

Year. 

C.C. 

C.C. 

moved. 

Elmira,  N.  V. 

Tune,  luly,  Aug. 

1898 

2237 

76 

96.6 

Reported  by 

Mar.,  Oct.,  Nov. 

1899 

6767 

98 

98.54 

1.  M.  Caird, 

Aug.,  Sept. 

1900 

547 

17 

96.9 

Bacteriologist, 

May,  Aug.,  Sept. 

1901 

1394 

17 

98.78 

Oct.  22,  1904. 

May,  Dec. 

1902 

10600 

342 

96.78 

Tune,  Sept.,  Dec. 

1903 

4491 

53 

98.82 

June,  Aug. 

1904 

647 

8 

98.77 

Average  seven  years 

97.88 

East  Jersey  Water 

1 2 months 

1903 

3233 

61 

98.12 

Co.,  Little  Falls, 

8 months 

1904 

1800 

50 

97.23 

N.  J.  Reported  by 

1'.  W.  Green,  Supt. 

Average  two  years 

97.68 

Ithaca,  N.  V. 

3 months 

1903 

5173 

27 

99.48 

E.  M.  Chamot, 

9 months 

1904 

8332 

74 

99.11 

Chemist  in  Charge. 

Average 

two  years 

99.29 

East  Providence, 

6 months 

1899 

596 

7 

98.83 

R.  I.  Reported  by 

t)  months 

1900 

97.08 

Dr.  G.  T.  Swarts, 

9 months 

1901 

98.40 

State  Board  of 

9 months 

1902 

98.10 

Health. 

6 months 

1903 

98.93 

Average  for 

five  years 

98.26 

Lorain,  Ohio. 

6 months 

1897 

98.00 

Dr.  S.  S.  Cox, 

1 montii 

1897 

97.24 

Health  Officer. 

January 

1904 

99.13 

Allen  Hazen, 

.March 

1904 

52292 

182 

99.65 

C.  A.  Brown. 

Louisiana,  Mo. 

September 

1899 

9621 

47 

98.50 

Prof.  Amand  Ravold, 

City  Bacteriologist 

of  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Norristown,  Pa. 

iMarch 

1900 

98.72 

Dr.  M.  P.  Ravenal. 

Rensselaer,  N.  Y. 

April 

1901 

99.50 

J.  M.  Caird. 

Vicksburg,  Miss., 

July 

1903 

98.74 

Prof.  R.  W.  Jones. 

Elyria,  Ohio, 

I'ebruary 

1904 

98.25 

C.  A.  Brown. 

Oregon  City,  Oregon. 

1904 

98.00 

Sunbury,  I*a., 

I'cbrnary 

1907) 

2100 

47 

97.7 

Freeland  Howe. 

Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

!)  months 

1903 

8157 

45 

99.47 

12  months 

1904 

7232 

31 

99.57 

Danville,  111., 

August 

1904 

98.19 

C.  A.  Brown. 

Moline,  111., 

April  26  to  June  3 

1904 

27100 

542 

98.00 

Prof.  E.  G.  Smith, 

C.  A.  B>rown. 

September 

1904 

99.64 

Norfolk,  Va.,  Per 

Oct.  to  Nov. 

1899 

356 

12 

96.00 

I.  J.  McCormick, 

Prof.  J.  M.  Caird. 

1900 

99.51 

^Lawrence,  Mass., 

Oct.,  Nov.  and  Dec 

. 1902 

11200 

316 

97.18 

'I'ransactions 

.\m.  So.  C.  E., 

Jan.  to  July 

1903 

8280 

178 

97.85 

190:1,  Page  469. 

*Albany,  N.  Y., 

Sept,  to  Dec. 

1902 

21125 

193 

99.1 

Transactions 

Am.  So.  C.  E., 

Jan.  to  July 

1903 

43613 

159 

98.95 

1908,  Page  469. 

*The  plants  at  Lawrence  and  Albany,  above  cited,  are  of  tlie  Englisli  or  slow 
sand  type,  d'he  balance  are  of  the  nieclianical  ly|)e.  Note  tlie  nninber  of  bac- 
teria remaining  in  filtered  water,  in  connection  witli  percentage  of  removal; 
also  how  safely  within  the  margin  of  re(|uirements  accepted  l)y  Sanitarians. 


22 


The  accompanying  plate,  reproduced  from  photos  of  culture 
plates,  taken  during  test  of  a plant  at  Oregon  City,  Oregon, 
gives  a visual  illustration  of  what  a 98  per  cent,  bacterial  re- 
duction means.  (See  page  24.) 

That  results  as  given  are  secured  by  filtration  works  (and 
these  tables  are  taken  from  reports  of  those  in  actual  charge 
oi  operations  and  entirely  disinterested  as  to  results)  certainl}' 
establish  the  most  intimate  relations  between  filtration  and  the 
health  of  a community.  That  typhoid  and  kindred  diseases  are 
distributed  through  the  medium  of  the  water  supply  of  a com- 
munity, all  authorities  agree ; and  the  heretofore  described 
epidemics,  with  their  investigations,  absolutely  demonstrate.  If 
then  we  can  eliminate  98  out  of  each  100  germs  carried  by 
the  water,  we  reduce  the  chances  of  inoculation  to  2 per  cent, 
of  what  they  would  be  in  using  the  raw  water.  In  other  words, 
in  one  case  we  have  100  chances  of  being  stricken ; in  the  other, 
two  chances.  Should  not  this  relative  condition  appeal  to  the 
senses  of  any  intelligent  community?  Note  the  reduction  at 
Ithaca — 99.29  per  cent.,  or  less  than  one  chance  in  one  hundred. 
San  you  think  for  a moment  that  had  this  filter  plant  been  in 
operation  at  the  time  the  pollution  occurred,  that  Ithaca  would 
have  suffered  that  great  catastrophe?  The  Lorain  results 
during,  before  and  after  the  repair  of  plant ; and  the  Butler 
results  during  operation  on  polluted  water  and  after  cutting 
out  for  changes,  fully  bear  this  out.  The  chart  showing  the 
reduction  in  typhoid  rates  in  several  cities  after  the  installation 
of  filter  plants  furnishes  further  evidence. 

I have  heard  arguments  by  physicians  even  against  the  in- 
stallation of  filter  plants  on  the  ground  that  it  was  impossible 
to  get  a guaranty  of  an  absolutely  pure  water.  Is  this  not  the 
height  of  folly?  Were  these  same  doctors  to  be  told  that  it 
would  be  useless  to  employ  them  unless  they  could  guarantee 
an  absolute  cure,  what  would  their  answer  be? 

Believing  that  a sound  relation  between  filtration  of  water 
and  the  health  of  a community  has  been  shown,  I will  now 
proceed  to  the  balance  of  the  proposition,  the  relationship  to  its 
prosperity. 

I submit  the  table  as  I have  figured  them  on  several  of  tlie 
epidemics.  (See  page  25.) 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  all  of  these  cities  except  Ply- 
mouth, Pa.,  and  Leadville,  Colo.,  either  have  now  or  are  build- 
ing filtration  plants  as  a result  of  their  typhoid  epidemics ; also 


23 


Culture  Plates  (Petri  dishes)  Showing  Bacterial  Growth  from  Three  Samples  of  Same  Water  Supply 


Tlie  above  plates  were  photographed  during  test  at  (Oregon  City,  Ore.,  and  convey  an  excellent  idea  of  the  value  of  mechanical  Filtration, 


CO?!T  OF  TYPHOID  EPIDEMICS. 


•sjBaX  X4JU1;  ui 
p[noA\‘  sso’[ 
[BnuuH  qoiijM 
^nssi  puoq 
J3d  f lunoiuy 


o 

o 

o 


o 

o 

o 

o 

w 


•lunuuB  aad  008!l!  § § 

Sl{JB3p  a3MOd  3UI  N 

-UJB3  III  SSO[  [BnUUY'  o 


o o c 

o 00 

<0  CO  00^ 

CO  oT 

oa  CO 


•X^lD 

04  ssoj  409Jfp 


o o 

<M  C 
Ci^  LC 

l>  00 


o o tr  o 

<C  CO  00  o 

co^  a lo 

cT  t-**  o o 

CO  Oi  o 

CO  ^ <0  rH 


O 

a 


*lsi;  4B  qOB^ 
yXep  Of'  3SBJ9AH 
‘so3em  jo  SSOJ  jo  4SO3 


000 
000^ 
^ o"  o" 

^ fo  CO 
09^ 


o 


Ift 


c o 

(M  C 
CO  in 

•n  cc 


o 

00 

OJ 

eo' 


•S3SBD  JO  aaqiuuu 
aioqAv  sXep  ot 
-J3AB  '‘oia  ‘Suisjuu 
‘siiiq  ,saojoop  jo  jsoj 


© o © © 


•08$ 

JE  S[BJ3linj  JO  JS03 


•qOB3 

000‘8$  sso[  qjB3(j 


© CO  © © 

© o © o © 

© o © © © 


O CO  00  O (M 

^ CO  05  50  CO 

CO  ^ fH 


'S9SED  JO  .i^qiunjsl 


‘sq4E;)p  JO  joqiunisj 


CO  -V 

oa 


•uoiiEindoj 


CO* 


O 

o 

o 

o' 


o 

o 

o 


eo*  • ^ 
o • V 


•3DBIJ 


05 

00 

00 


3 

o -t:; 


< 3 

ec 


e«5 

© 

© 


. o 

6 ~ 


c 

!=■  s I 

2 i o 

3 ^ -ij 
— rt  2 tfl 

O (U 

'O  ^ > 


25 


the  sums  for  which  bonds  might  have  been  issued  and  re^ 
deemed  in  thirty  years  by  the  yearly  loss  represented  in  the  loss 
of  earning  capacity  of  the  deaths — in  most  cities  several  times 
the  amount  necessary  to  build  filtration  works  of  the  most  elab- 
orate character. 

Following  out  this  line  of  investigation,  let  me  call  your 
attention  to  a table  of  statistics  of  typhoid  for  the  years  1902 
and  T903  at  Idiiladelphia  and  Pittsburgh.  {See  page  27.) 

On  a basis  of  actual  dead  loss,  this  figures  the  enormous  sum 
of  $5,709,375,  or  $2,854,688  per  annum,  as  a tribute  to  polluted 
water  in  Philadelphia.  If  we  take  again  the  amount  of  4 per 
cent,  bonds  that  might  be  issued  annually  and  retired  in  thirty 
years  by  the  annual  loss  in  earning  capacity  of  those  slaught- 
ered by  this  public  indifference,  we  could  provide  an  annual 
bond  issue  of  $3,830,000,  or  in  five  years,  the  time  required  to 
complete  the  filtration  works  now  building,  the  sum  of  $19,- 
1 50,000,  or  more  than  enough  to  pay  for  them. 

But  this  showing,  bad  as  it  is,  is  completely  overshadowed 
by  Pittsburgh.  Here  the  death  harvest  for  two  years  is  equal 
to  $3,283,585,  or  $1,641,790  per  annum,  with  a population  one- 
fourth  as  great.  On  the  basis  -of  4 per  cent,  bonds  issued,  and 
death  earnings,  it  is  equivalent  to  $2,342,500  yearly.  Five 
years  ago  Pittsburgh  issued  several  million  dollars  in  bonds 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  pure  water  ; while  public  officials 
have  been  wrangling  as  to  how  it  should  be  spent  a total  loss 
equivalent  to  $11,712,000  has  accumulated. 

Five  years  more  must  elapse  before  a plant  can  be  com- 
pleted. At  the  same  rate  this  is  equivalent  to  $23,425,000,  suf- 
ficient to  build  four  or  five  plants  of  the  most  expensive  kind. 
Still  the  people  sit  idly  by  .and  see  their  money  and  lives  frit- 
tered away  by  the  petty  bickering  of  officials.  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  the  able  editor  of  the  Engineering  News  cries  “wholesale 
murder”  and  calls  on  the  daily  press  of  the  whole  country  to 
unite  in  a camjiaign  against  such  a condition  of  affairs  ? Is  it 
not  a great  wonder  that  the  daily  press,  usually  so  keen  to  ad- 
vocate matters  beneficial  to  mankind,  fails  to  see  the  great 
opportunity  here  presented,  and  is  only  at  intervals  aroused 
from  lethargy  by  such  occasional  massacres  as  Ithaca.  lUitler 
and  others  ? 

Now  in  conclusion  I desire  to  add  but  a few  more  words. 
According  to  a report  printed  in  Fire  and  Water  Engineering, 
E'eb.  IT,  1904,  there  were  reported  in  the  United  States  500,000 


26 


S'lA'nSTICS  Ol'  'lA' I’ll  oil)  AT  I’l  1 1 LA  1 )EI  .I’H  I A AND  I’mSI!  L R( 1 1 , 


•S.IBjA  X).Ul|}  lU 
34113a  pinOAV  SSOl 
111’b3P  [BUUUB  IJOllJM 

3nssi  piioq  ‘lusD 

43d  t JO  lunouiv' 


■lUlUlllE  43J  00i;$ 
Sl[lB3p  JO  43MOd  3UI 
-U4E3  III  SSO[  [BnUll\’ 


•Xip 

OJ  SSOI  lD34ip  IBIOJL 


IB  q3B3 
sXBp  0^  33B43AB 

‘S33BA\  jo  SSOI  IS03 


•S3SB3  JO  43qiunu 
3IoqA\  sXbp  ot 
-43AB  '‘OIS  ‘Suisauu 
‘Sipq  ,S40130p  jo  JS03 


o 


ri 

o 

O' 


•OSi 

IB  SIB43Unj  JO  IS03 


•qOB3 

ooo‘s‘$  SSOI 


•S3SB3  JO  43qtun^ 


sqiBsp  JO  aoqmn^ 


•uoiiBpidoj 


•3DBIJ 


27 


Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1902 p.lnO.OOO  588  -5, 000  $1,764,000  $17,640  $175,210  $200,240  $2,157,090  $176,400  $2,960,000 

190:l 957  8,701  2,871,000  28,710  ;104,5.35  348,040  3,552,285  287,100  4,700,000 


cases  of  typhoid  in  1903,  with  50,000  deaths.  Figuring  the  loss 
on  the  same  basis  as  used  in  the  previous  tables,  we  have  an 
annual  tax  of  $186,500,000,  or  more  than  the  cost  of  maintain- 
ing the  army  and  navy  combined ; twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
than  the  pension  roll ; an  amount  sufficient  to  build  filter  plants, 
at  an  average  cost  of  $20,000  per  million  gallons  capacity 
(which  is  liberal),  capable  of  filtering  9,325,000,000  gallons  of 
water  daily,  or  125  gallons  per  day  for  74,500,000  people. 


28 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF 


MUNICIPAL  FILTRATION  PLANTS 

INSTALLED  BY  THE 

PITTSBURGH  FILTER  MANUFACTURING  GO. 

Gallons. 

Columbia,  Pa 2,000,000 

Sharon,  Pa 2,000,000 

Washington,  Pa 4,000,000 

Waynesburg,  Pa 1,000,000 

Sunbury,  Pa 4,000,000 

New  Brighton,  Pa 3,000,000 

Harrisburg,  Pa 12,000,000 

Monessen,  Pa 2,000,000 

Conneaut,  Ohio 500,000 

Upper  Sandusky,  Ohio 500,000 

Oberlin,  Ohio 300,000 

Vermillion,  Ohio 300,000 

Sidney,  N.  Y 300,000 

Trenton,  Mo 500,000 

Elberton,  Ga 500,000 

Greenville,  N.  C 300,000 

Morgantown,  W.  V^a 1,000,000 

Gloucester,  N.  J 2,000,000 

Danville,  Va 2,000,000 

Louisburg,  N.  C 300,000 

Lorain,  Ohio *.  6,000,000 

Dundas,  Ont 300,000 

Iselin,  Pa 100,000 

Wilmington,  N.  C 2,000,000 


29 


: ;fi 


. V ■/.<. 


; / 


.,r  •-- 


1 •. 


A. 


^:'.'=L 


- ■'■  ; 


■i"  - ' 


■i  ■">  ■■ ' 


;■ 


-:  iy 

' ■ ■•\'> 


A 


